Contemporary Female Gurus, their Movements and Followers: The Case of Amma and Mata Amritanandamayi Mission
Issue: Vol 6 No. 1 (2015)
Journal: International Journal for the Study of New Religions
Subject Areas: Religious Studies
Abstract:
Based on a random sample of 543 followers of a new religious movement called Mata Amritanandamayi Mission in India, this paper argues that these followers derived their sense of well-being through the gift of embrace by its iconic teacher Mata Amritanandamayi or Amma also known worldwide as the ‘hugging saint’. Followers are recipients of her embrace which is looked at predominantly as a healing touch as well as an expression of maternal love and proximity to the divine. I have studied the ways followers get associated with the movement and the roles they play, the images they have of Amma and their experiences and perceived efficacy of her embrace. The Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being scale has been used to measure well-being. The efficacy of the embrace creates a habitus of Amma’s followers who have various positive experiences through the association. Simultaneously it also generates a collective memory and exclusive cultural identities for Amma followers.
Author: Samta P Pandya
References :
Amarasingam, A.
2009. “New age spirituality, quantum mysticism and self-psychology: changing ourselves from the inside out.” Mental Health, Religion & Culture 12(3): 277–287. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13674670802500817
Anderson, C. S.
2008. “Feminist theory, scholars, and the study of South Asian religions.” Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 24(1): 60–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.2979/FSR.2008.24.1.60
Appadurai, A.
1990. “Topographies of the self: praise and emotion in Hindu India.”. InLanguage and the Politics of Emotion, edited by C. A. Lutz and L. Abu-Lughod, 92–112. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Beckford, J. ed.
2007. New Religious Movements and Rapid Social Change. London: Sage Publications.
Butler, J.
1990. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York: Routledge.
Chakravarti, U.
2006. “The world of the Bhaktin South Indian traditions: The body and beyond.” In Everyday Lives, Everyday Histories: Beyond the Kings and Brahmanas of “Ancient” India, edited by U. Chakravarti, 275–292. New Delhi: Tulika Books.
Chowdhry, P.
1996. “Marriage, sexuality and the female ‘ascetic’: Understanding a Hindu sect.” Economic and Political Weekly 31(34): 2307–2321.
Coleman, S.
2004. “The charismatic gift.” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Society 10(1): 421–442. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9655.2004.00196.x
Coney, J.
1999. Sahaja Yoga: Socializing Processes in a South Asian New Religious Movement. Delhi: Oxford.
Copeman, J.
2009. Veins of devotion: Blood donation and religious experience in North India. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
———. and A. Ikegame, eds.
2012a. “Guru logics.” HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory 2(1): 289–336. http://dx.doi.org/10.14318/hau2.1.014
2012b. Guru in South Asia: New Interdisciplinary Perspectives. London: Routledge.
Dalmiya, V.
2000. “Loving paradoxes: A feminist reclamation of the goddess Kali.” Hypatia 15(1): 125–150. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1527-2001.2000.tb01082.x
Davis, B.
2005. “Mediators of the relationship between hope and wellbeing in older adults.” Clinical Nursing Research 14(3): 253–272. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1054773805275520
Dawson, L.
2006. “Psychopathologies and the attribution of charisma: A critical introduction to the psychology of charisma and the explanation of violence in new religious movements.” Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions 10(2): 3–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/nr.2006.10.2.3
DeNapoli, A.
2009. “‘By the sweetness of the tongue’: Duty, destiny, and devotion in the oral life narratives of female Sādhus in Rajasthan.” Asian Ethnology 68(1): 81–109.
2013. “‘Real Sadhus sing to God’: The religious capital of devotion and domesticity in the leadership of female renouncers in Rajasthan.” Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 29(1): 117–133. http://dx.doi.org/10.2979/jfemistudreli.29.1.117
Doniger, W.
2011. From kama to karma: The resurgence of puritanism in contemporary India.” Social Research 78(1): 49–74.
Exon, B.
1997. “Autonomous agents and divine stage managers: Models of (self-) determination amongst Western devotees of two modern Hindu religious movements.” Scottish Journal of Religious Studies 18: 163–179.
Flanagan, K.
2008. Sociology into theology: The unacceptable leap.” Theory, Culture and Society 25(7–8): 236–261. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0263276408097806
Foss, D. A. and R. W. Larkin.
1978. “Worshiping the absurd: The negation of social causality among the followers of Guru Maharaj Ji.” Sociological Analysis 39(2): 157–164. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3710215
Frøystad, K.
2012. “The mediated guru: Simplicity, instantaneity and change in middle-class religious seeking.” In The guru in South Asia, edited by J. Copeman and A. Ikegame, 181–201. London: Routledge.
Fuller, C. J. and J. Harriss.
2005. “Globalizing Hinduism: A traditional guru and modern businessmen in Chennai.” In Globalizing India: Perspectives from below, edited by J. Assayag and C. J. Fuller, 95–119. London: Anthem.
Habib, I.
2007. Religion in Indian History. Delhi: Tulika Books and Aligarh Historians Society.
Hardtman, E.
2009. The Dalit Movement in India: Local Practices, Global Connections. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Hausner. S. L. and M. Khandelwal.
2006. “Introduction: Women on their own.” In Women’s Renunciation in South Asia: Nuns, Yoginis, Saints and Singers, edited by M. Khandelwal, S. L. Hausner and A. G. Gold, 1–38). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Hawley, J. S. and M. Juergensmeyer.
2004. Songs of the Saints of India. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Hoecke, G. van.
2006. “Paradigms in Indian psychotherapy: Applicability in a Western approach.” Mental Health, Religion and Culture 9(2): 119–125. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13694670500071687
Huffer, A.
2010. “Female Immigration as a catalyst for ritual practice: A social history of Hinduism in the United States.” The Journal of Hindu Studies 2(2): 189–215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jhs/hiq013
2011. “Hinduism without religion: Amma’s movement in America.” Crosscurrents 374-398. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-3881.2011.00188.x
Hughes, P., P. Suwanbubbha and J. Chaisri.
2008. “The nature of spirituality among young people in Australia and Thailand.” Social Compass 55(3): 359–372. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0037768608093697
Ikegame, A.
2012. “The governing guru: Hindu mathas in liberalising India.” In The Guru in South Asia: New Interdisciplinary Perspectives, edited by J. Copeman and A. Ikegame, 46–63). London: Routledge.
Jonker, A., H. Conyer, K. Knipscheer and D. J. H. Deeg.
2009. “The role of coping resources on change in well-being during persistent health decline.” Journal of Health and Aging 21(8): 1063–1082. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0898264309344682
Kakar, S.
1982. Shamans, mystics and doctors: A psychological inquiry into India and its healing traditions. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Khandelwal, M.
2006. “Do saints need sleep? Baiji’s renunciation as service.” In Women’s Renunciation in South Asia: Nuns, Yoginis, Saints and Singers, M. Khandelwal, S. L. Hausner and A. G. Gold, 39–68. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
2012. “The cosmopolitan guru: Spiritual tourism and the ashrams of Rishikesh.” In The Guru in South Asia: New Interdisciplinary Perspectives, edited by J. Copeman and A. Ikegame, 202–221. London: Routledge.
Knight, L.
2006. “Renoucning expectations: Single Baul women renouncers and the value of being a wife.” In Women’s Renunciation in South Asia: Nuns, Yoginis, Saints and Singers, M. Khandelwal, S. L. Hausner and A. G. Gold, 191–222. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Kripal, J. J.
2004. “Comparative mystics: Scholars as gnostic diplomats.” Common Knowledge 10(3): 485–517. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/0961754X-10-3-485
Lawler-Row, K. A. and J. Elliott.
2009. “The role of religious activity and spirituality in the health and well-being of older adults.” Journal of Health Psychology 14(1): 43–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1359105308097944
Locker, D., M. Clarke and B. Payne.
2000. “Self perceived oral health status, psychological well-being and life satisfaction in an older adult population.” Journal of Dental Research 79(4): 970–975. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00220345000790041301
Louis, P.
2003. Political Sociology of Dalit Assertion. Delhi: Gyan Publishing.
Lu, L. and J. B. Shih.
1993. “Personality and happiness: Is mental health a mediator?” Personality and Individual Differences 22(2): 249–256. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(96)00187-0
Mahoney, A.
2010. “Religion in families, 1999 – 2009: A relational spirituality framework.” Journal of Marriage and Family 72(2): 805–827. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00732.x
Malhotra, A.
2012. “Bhakti and the gendered self: A courtesan and a consort in mid-nineteenth century Punjab.” Modern Asian Studies 46: 1506–1539. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X11000837
Martin, J. L., T. V. Gunten and B. D. Zablocki.
2012. “Charisma, status, and gender in groups with and without gurus.” Journal or the Scientific Study of Religion 51(1): 20–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5906.2011.01633.x
Mata Amritanandamayi Mission Trust (MAM Trust).
1986. For My Children; The Teachings of Her Holiness Sri Mata Amritanandamayi Devi. Amritapuri: Mata Amritanandamayi Mission Trust.
2010. The Humanitarian Activities of Sri Mata Amritanandamayi. Amritapuri: MAM Trust.
McKean, L.
1996. Divine enterprise: Gurus and the Hindu nationalist movement. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Milevsky, I, L. Szuchman and A. Milevsky.
2010. “Transmission of religious beliefs in college students.” Mental Health, Religion and Culture 11(4): 423–434. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13674670701507541
Mines, M.
1999. “Heterodox lives: Agonistic individuality and agency in south Indian history.” In Institutions and Inequalities: Essays in Honour of Andre´ Be´teille, edited by R. Guha and J. Parry, 209–233. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Mines, M. and V. Gourishankar.
1990. “Leadership and individuality in South Asia: The case of the south Indian ig-man.” Journal of Asian Studies 49: 761–786. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2058235
Nanda, M.
2009. The God Market: How Globalisation Is Making India More Hindu. Delhi: Random House.
Palmer, S. J. and F. Bird.
1992. “Therapy, Charisma and Social Control in the Rajneesh Movement.” Sociological Analysis 53: S71–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3711252
Parkinson. J.
2006. Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale. Warwick: University of Warwick.
Pechilis, K.
2012. “The female guru: Guru, gender and the path of personal experience.” In The Guru in South Asia: New Interdisciplinary Perspectives, edited by J. Copeman and A. Ikegame, 113–132 London: Routledge.
2008. “Chosen moments: mediation and direct experience in the life of the classical Tamil Saint Kāraikkāl Ammaiyār.” Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 24(1): 11–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.2979/FSR.2008.24.1.11
———. ed.
2004. The Graceful Guru: Hindu Female Gurus in India and the United States. New York: Oxford University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195145380.001.0001
Raj, S. J.
2004. “Ammachi: The mother of compassion.” In The Graceful Guru: Hindu female gurus in India and the United States, edited by K. Pechilis, 203–218. New York: Oxford University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195145380.003.0009
Sanderson, T., M. Morris, M. Calnan, P. Richard and S. Hewlett.
2010. “It’s this whole picture, this well-being: Patients’ understanding of ‘feeling well’ with rheumatoid arthritis.” Chronic Illness 6(3): 228–240. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1742395310377672
Schjoedt, U., H. Stødkilde-Jørgensen, A. W. Geertz, T. E. Lund and A. Roepstorff.
2011. “The power of charisma - perceived charisma inhibits the frontal executive network of believers in intercessory prayer.” SCAN 6(1): 119–127. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsq023
Sheldon, K. M. A. J. Elliot, R. M. Ryan, V. Chiskov, Y. Kim, C. Wu, M. Demir, and Z. Sun.
2004. “Self concordance and subjective well-being in four cultures.” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 35(2): 209–223. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022022103262245
Shinde, K. and A. M. Pinkney.
2013. “Shirdi in transition: Guru devotion, urbanization and regional pluralism in India.” South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 36(4): 554–570. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00856401.2012.726605
Smith, N, A. Young and C. Lee.
2004. “Optimism, health related hardiness and well-being among older Australian women. Journal of Health Psychology 9(6): 741–752. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1359105304045373
Spencer-Rodgers, J., K. Peng, L. Wang and Y. Hou.
2004. “Dialectical self esteem and east-west differences in psychological well- being.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30(11): 1416–1432. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167204264243
Srinivas, S.
2008. In the Presence of Sai Baba: Body, City and Memory in a Global Religious Movement. Leiden: Brill. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004165434.i-403
2010. Winged faith: Rethinking globalization and religious pluralism through the Sathya Sai movement. New York: Columbia University Press.
Swami Amritaswarupananda Puri.
1988. Mata Amritanandamayi: A Biography. Amritapuri: Mata Amritanandamayi Mission Trust.
2003. Racing Along Razor’s Edge: Discourses on Spirituality. Amritapuri: Mata Amritanandamayi Mission Trust.
2006. The Secret of Inner Peace: Discourses on Spirituality. Amritapuri: Mata Amritanandamayi Mission Trust, 2006.
2008. From Amma’s Heart: Conversations with Sri Mata Amritanandamayi Devi. Amritapuri; Mata Amritanandamayi Mission Trust.
2009. The Timeless Path: A Step by Step Guide to Spiritual Evolution. Amritapuri: Mata Amritanandamayi Mission Trust.
Valiant, G.
1997. “Life events, happiness and depression: The half empty cup.” Personality and Individual Differences 15(3): 447–453.
Van Hoecke,
2006. “Paradigms in Indian psychotherapy: Applicability in a Western approach.” Mental Health, Religion & Culture 9(2): 119–125. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13694670500071687
Varma, P. K.
1998. The Great Indian Middle Class. Delhi: Penguin.
Warrier, M.
2003a. “Processes of secularization in contemporary India: guru faith in the Mata Amritanandamayi Mission.” Modern Asian Studies 37: 213–253. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X03001070
2003b. “Guru choice and spiritual seeking in contemporary India.” International Journal of Hindu Studies 7:(1/3): 31–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11407-003-0002-7
2005. Hindu Selves in a Modern World: Guru Faith in the Mata Amritanandamayi Mission. London: Routledge. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203462065
2006. “Modernity and its imbalances: Constructing modern selfhood in the Mata Amritanandamayi Mission.” Religion 36(4): 179–195. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.religion.2006.09.001