Implicit Religion, Explicit Religion and Attitude Toward Substances: An Empirical Enquiry Among 13- to 15-year-old Adolescents
Issue: Vol 18 No. 3 (2015)
Journal: Implicit Religion
Subject Areas: Religious Studies
Abstract:
A recent research tradition has employed Bailey’s (1997, 1998) notion of implicit religion to explore the ways in which Christian believing in the UK may be persisting in spite of declining levels of church attendance. Working within this framework the first aim of this study is to explore the prevalence of implicit religion, operationalized as attachment to traditional Christian rites of passage, among young people living within the UK. The second aim of this study, following the analytic model proposed by Francis (2013a, 2013b) exploring the psychological functions served by explicit religion and implicit religion, is to test the hypothesis that explicit religiosity (operationalized as church attendance) and implicit religiosity (operationalized as attachment to Christian rites of passage) are both associated with proscriptive attitudes toward substances among young people. Data provided by a sample of 12,252 13- to 15- year-old young people support this hypothesis.
Author: Gemma Penny, Leslie Francis
References :
Allsopp, J. F. 1986. “Personality as a Determinant of Beer and Cider Consumption among Young Men.” Personality and Individual Differences 7(3): 41–347. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(86)90009-7
ap Siôn, T. and O. Edwards. 2013. “Say One For Me: The Implicit Religion of Prayers from the Street.” Mental Health, Religion and Culture 9: 22–935. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2012.758398
———. and P. Nash. 2013. “Coping Through Prayer: An Empirical Study in Implicit Religion Concerning Prayers for Children in Hospital.” Mental Health, Religion and Culture 9: 936–952. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2012.756186
Bailey, E. I. 1997. Implicit Religion in Contemporary Society. G A Kampen: Kok Pharos.
———. 1998. Implicit Religion: An Introduction. London: Middlesex University Press.
———, ed. 2002. The Secular Quest for Meaning in Life: Denton Papers in Implicit Religion. New York: Edwin Mellen Press
Barber, J. G. and W. L. Grichting. 1987. “The Assessment of Drug Attitudes Among University Students Using the Short Form of the Drug Attitude Scale.” International Journal of the Addictions 22: 1033–1039. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10826088709109696
Brechting, E. H., T. L. Brown, J. M. Salsman, S. E. Sauer and V. T. Holeman. 2010. “The Role of Religious Beliefs in Predicting Underage Alcohol Use.” Journal of Child and Adolescent Substance Abuse 19: 324–334. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1067828X.2010.502494
Bruce, S. 2002. God is Dead: Secularisation in the West. Oxford: Blackwell.
Champion, R. A. and D. S. Bell. 1980. “Attitudes Toward Drug Use: Trends and Correlates with Actual Use.” International Journal of the Addictions 15: 551–567. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10826088009040037
Chu, D. C. 2007. “Religiosity and Desistance from Drug Use.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 34: 661–679. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093854806293485
Clarke, L., L. Beeghley and J. C. Cochran. 1990. “Religiosity, Social Class, and Alcohol Use: An Application of Reference Group Theory.” Sociological Perspectives 33: 201–218. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1389043
Cochran, J. K., L. Beeghley and E. W. Bock. 1992. “The Influence of Religious Stability and Homogamy on the Relationship between Religiosity and Alcohol Use among Protestants.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 31: 441–456. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1386855
Cook, C. C. H., D. Goddard and R. Westall. 1997. “Knowledge and Experience of Drug Use Amongst Church Affiliated Young People.” Drug and Alcohol Dependence 46: 9–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0376-8716(97)00036-7
Corulla, W. J. 1990. “A Revised Version of the Psychoticism Scale for Children.” Personality and Individual Differences 11: 65–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(90)90169-R
Corwyn, R. F. 2002. “Church Attendance or Expressions of Religiosity: Predictors of Adolescent Drug Use.” Marriage and Family: A Christian Journal 5: 79–91.
———. and B. B. Benda. 2000. “Religiosity and Church Attendance: The Effects on Use of ‘Hard Drugs’ Controlling for Sociodemographic and Theoretical Factors.” International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 10: 241–258. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327582IJPR1004_03
Cosper, R. L., I. O. Okraku and B. Neumann. 1987. “Tavern Going in Canada: A National Survey of Regulars at Public Drinking Establishments.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol 48: 252–259. http://dx.doi.org/10.15288/jsa.1987.48.252
Cronbach, L. J. 1951. “Coefficient Alpha and the Internal Structure of Tests.” Psychometrika 16: 297–334. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555
Davie, G. 1994. Religion in Britain since 1945: Believing Without Belonging. Oxford: Blackwell.
DeVellis, R. F. 2003. Scale Development: Theory and Applications. London: Sage.
Eiser, J. R., C. Eiser, P. Gammage and M. Morgan. 1989. “Health Locus of Control and Health Beliefs in Relation to Adolescent Smoking.” British Journal of Addiction 84: 1059–1065. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1989.tb00789.x
Eysenck, H. J. and S. B. G. Eysenck. 1975. Manual of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (adult and junior). London: Hodder and Stoughton.
———. and S. B. G. Eysenck. 1991. Manual of the Eysenck Personality Scales. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
Eysenck, S. B. G., H. J. Eysenck and P. Barrett. 1985. “A Revised Version of the Psychoticism Scale.” Personality and Individual Differences 6: 21–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(85)90026-1
Fawcett, B., L. J. Francis, J. Linkletter and M. Robbins. 2012. “Religiosity and Alcohol Avoidance: A Study among Canadian Baptist Youth.” The Journal of Youth Ministry 11: 45–62.
Francis, L. J. 1992. “Attitudes Towards Alcohol, Church Attendance and Denominational Identity.” Drug and Alcohol Dependence 31: 45–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0376-8716(92)90007-Y
———. 1994. “Denominational Identity, Church Attendance and Drinking Behaviour Among Adults in England.” Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education 39: 27–33.
———. 1996a. “The Relationship Between Eysenck’s Personality Factors and Attitude Towards Substance Use Among 13 to 15 Year Olds.” Personality and Individual Differences 21: 633–640. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(96)00125-0
———. 1996b. “The Development of an Abbreviated Form of the Revised Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (JEPQR-A) Among 13–15 Year Olds.” Personality and Individual Differences 21: 835–844. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(96)00159-6
———. 1997. “The Impact of Personality and Religion on Attitude Towards Substance Use Among 13–15 Year Olds.” Drug and Alcohol Dependence 44: 95–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0376-8716(96)01325-7
———. 2000. “The Relationship Between Bible Reading and Purpose in Life Among 13–15 Year Olds.” Mental Health, Religion and Culture 3: 27–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13674670050002072
———. 2001. The Values Debate: A Voice from the Pupils. London: Woburn Press.
———. 2002. “The Relationship Between Bible Reading and Attitude Toward Substance Use Among 13–15 Year Olds.” Religious Education 97: 44–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/003440802753595258
———. 2013a. “Implicit Religion, Explicit Religion and Purpose in Life: An Empirical Enquiry Among 13- to 15-Year-old Adolescents.” Mental Health, Religion and Culture 16: 909–921. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2012.756615
———. 2013b. “The Association Between Suicidal Ideation, Explicit Religion and Implicit Religion: An Empirical Enquiry Among 13- to 15-Year-old Adolescents.” Implicit Religion 16: 93–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/imre.v16i1.93
———. and L. Burton. 1994. “The Influence of Personal Prayer on Purpose in Life Among Catholic Adolescents.” Journal of Beliefs and Values 15: 6–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1361767940150202
———. and T. E. Evans. 1996. “The Relationship Between Personal Prayer and Purpose in Life Among Churchgoing and Non-churchgoing 12–15 Year-olds in the UK.” Religious Education 91: 9–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0034408960910102
———., M. Fearn and C. A. Lewis. 2005. “The Impact of Personality and Religion on Attitudes Towards Alcohol Among 16-18 Year-olds in Northern Ireland.” Journal of Religion and Health 44: 267–289. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10943-005-5464-z
———., S. Flere, R. Klanjšek, E. Williams and M. Robbins. 2013. “Attitude Toward Christianity and New Age Beliefs Among Undergraduate Students in Slovenia: A Study in Implicit Religion.” Mental Health, Religion and Culture 9: 953–963. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2012.759721
———. and C. A. M. Hermans. 2009. “Psychological Health and Attitude Toward Christianity: A Study Among Pupils Attending Catholic Schools in the Netherlands.” Journal of Religious Education 57: 47–58.
———. and W. K. Kay. 1995. Teenage Religion and Values. Leominster: Gracewing.
———. and K. Mullen. 1993. “Religiosity and Attitudes Towards Drug Use Among 13-15 Year-olds in England.” Addiction 88: 665–672. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1993.tb02079.x
———., R. Philipchalk and L. B. Brown. 1991. “The Comparability of the Short Form EPQ-R with the EPQ Among Students in England, the USA, Canada and Australia.” Personality and Individual Differences 12: 1129–1132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(91)90075-M
———. and M. Robbins. 2004. “Belonging Without Believing: A Study in the Social Significance of Anglican Identity and Implicit Religion Among 13-15 Year-old Males.” Implicit Religion 7: 37–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/imre.7.1.37.36037
———. and M. Robbins. 2006. “Prayer, Purpose in Life, Personality and Social Attitudes Among Non-churchgoing 13 to 15 Year-olds in England and Wales.” Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion 17: 123–155.
———. 2009. “Prayer, Purpose in Life, and Attitude Toward Substances: A Study Among 13 to 15 Year-olds in England and Wales.” Counselling and Spirituality 28: 83–104.
———., M. Robbins and E. Williams. 2006. “Believing and Implicit Religion Beyond the Churches: Religion, Superstition, Luck and Fear Among 13 to 15 Year-old Girls in Wales.” Implicit Religion 9: 74–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/imre.2006.9.1.74
———., E. Williams and M. Robbins. 2006. “The Unconventional Beliefs of Conventional Churchgoers: The Matter of Luck.” Implicit Religion 9: 305–314. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/imre.v9i3.305
———., E. Williams and. M Robbins. 2008. “Church attendance, implicit religion and belief in luck: The relationship between conventional religiosity and alternative spirituality among adolescents.’’ Implicit Religion 11: 239-254. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/imre.v11i3.239
French, H. W. 2002. “Religion and Football: The Cult of the Fighting Game-cock.” In The Secular Quest for Meaning in Life, edited by E. I. Bailey, 319–336. New York: Edwin Mellon Press.
Gill, R. 1993. The Myth of the Empty Church. London: SPCK.
———. 2003. The “empty” Church Revisited. Aldershot: Ashgate.
Hills, P. and L. J. Francis. 2005. “The Relationship of Religiosity and Personality with Suicidal Ideation.” Mortality 10: 286–293. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13576270500321860
Hovey, J. D. 1999. “Religion and Suicidal Ideation in a Sample of Latin American Immigrants.” Psychological Reports 85: 171–177. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1999.85.1.171
Kandel, D. B. 1980. “Drug and Drink Behaviour Among Youth.” Annual Review of Sociology 6: 235–285. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.so.06.080180.001315
Kay, W. K. and L. J. Francis. 2006. “Suicidal Ideation Among Young People in the UK: Churchgoing as an Inhibitory Influence?” Mental Health, Religion and Culture 9: 127–140. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13694670500071745
Kemp, D. 2001. “Christaquarianism: A New Socio-religious Movement of Post-modern Society?” Implicit Religion 4: 27–40.
Kraus, R. 2009. “The Many Faces of Spirituality: A Conceptual Framework Considering Belly Dance.” Implicit Religion 12: 51–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/imre.v12i1.051
Laflin, M. T., S. Moore-Hirschl, D. L. Weis and B. E. Hayes. 1994. “Use of the Theory of Reasoned Action to Predict Drug and Alcohol Use.” International Journal of the Addictions 29: 927–940. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10826089409047918
Lester, D. and L. J. Francis. 1993. “Is Religiosity Related to Suicidal Ideation After Personality and Mood are Taken into Account?” Personality and Individual Differences 15: 591-592. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(93)90342-Z
Lewis, C. A. 2013. “Mental Health, Implicit Religion and Culture.” Mental Health, Religion and Culture 16: 879–882. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2013.847229
Lubben, J. E., I. Chi and H. H. L. Kitano. 1988. “Exploring Filipino American Drinking Behaviour.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol 49: 26–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.15288/jsa.1988.49.26
Margulies, R. Z., R. C. Kessler and D. B. Kandel. 1977. “A Longitudinal Study of Onset of Drinking Among High-school Students.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol 38: 897–912. http://dx.doi.org/10.15288/jsa.1977.38.897
Marion, M. S. and L. M. Range. 2003. “African American College Women’s Suicide Buffers.” Suicide and Life Threatening Behaviour 33: 33–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/suli.33.1.33.22780
Martino, E. R. and C. V. Truss. 1973. “Drug Use and Attitude Towards Social and Legal Aspects of Marijuana in a Large Metropolitan University.” Journal of Counselling Psychology 20: 120–126. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0034163
Mellor, J. M. and B. A. Freeborn. 2011. “Religious Participation and Risky Health Behaviors Among Adolescents.” Health Economics 20: 1226–1240. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hec.1666
Mullen, K. and L. J. Francis. 1995. “Religiosity and Drug Use Among Dutch School-Children.” Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education 41: 16–25.
Patton, D., G. E. Barnes and R. P. Murray. 1993. “Personality Characteristics of Smokers and Ex-smokers.” Personality and Individual Differences 15: 653–664. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(93)90007-P
Pettersson, T. 1991. “Religion and Criminality: Structural Relationships Between Church Involvement and Crime Rates in Contemporary Sweden.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 30: 279–291. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1386973
Rasic, D., S. Kisely and D. B. Langille. 2011. “Protective Associations of Importance of Religion and Frequency of Service Attendance with Depression Risk, Suicidal Behaviours and Substance Use in Adolescents in Nova Scotia, Canada.” Journal of Affective Disorders 132: 389–395. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2011.03.007
Regnerus, M. D., and G. H. Elder. 2003. “Religion and Vulnerability Among Low-risk Adolescents.” Social Science Research 322: 633–658. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0049-089X(03)00027-9
Robbins, M. and L. J. Francis. 2005. “Purpose in Life and Prayer Among Catholic and Protestant Adolescents in Northern Ireland.” Journal of Research in Christian Education 14: 73–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10656210509484981
———. and L. J. Francis. 2009. “The Spiritual Revolution and Suicidal Ideation: An Empirical Enquiry Among 13 to 15 Year-old Adolescents in England and Wales.” International Journal of Children’s Spirituality 14: 261–272. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13644360903086539
Schnell, T., L. J. Francis, C. A. Lewis. 2011. “Psychological Perspectives on Implicit Religion.” Implicit Religion 4: 385–386. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/imre.v14i4.385
———. and S. Pali. 2013. “Pilgrimage Today: The Meaning-making Potential of Ritual.” Mental Health, Religion and Culture 16(9): 887–902. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2013.766449
Sloane, D. M. and R. H. Potvin. 1986. “Religion and Delinquency: Cutting Through the Maze.” Social Forces 65: 87–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sf/65.1.87
Steinman, K. J., A. K. Ferketich and T. Sahr. 2008. “The Dose-response Relationship of Adolescent Religious Activity and Substance Use: Variation Across Demographic Groups.” Health Education and Behavior 35: 22–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1090198105284839
Till, R. 2010. “The Personality Cult of Prince: Purple Rain, Sex and the Sacred, and the Implicit Religion Surrounding a Popular Icon.” Implicit Religion 13: 141–159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/imre.v13i2.141
Toussaint, L. 2009. “Associations of Religiousness with 12-month Prevalence of Drug Use and Drug-related Sex.” International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction 7: 311–323. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11469-008-9171-3
Walker, D. 2013. “You Don’t Have to Go to Church to be a Good Christian: The Implicit Religion of the Cathedral Carol Service Congregation.” Mental Health, Religion and Culture 16: 903–908. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2012.758401
———, L. J. Francis and M. Robbins. 2010. “You Don’t Have to Go to Church to be a Good Christian: The Implicit Religion of Rural Anglican Churchgoers Celebrating Harvest.” Implicit Religion 13: 319–325.
Williams, E., L. J. Francis and M. Robbins. 2011. “Implicit Religion and the Quest for Meaning: Purpose in Life and Transcendental Beliefs.” Implicit Religion 14: 45–65.