Item Details

The Case of Non-religious Asylum Seekers

Issue: Vol 31 No. 2 (2018) Special Issue: Religion and Humanitarianism

Journal: Journal for the Academic Study of Religion

Subject Areas: Religious Studies Buddhist Studies Islamic Studies Biblical Studies

DOI: 10.1558/jasr.36227

Abstract:

In the last ten years there has been increasing focus on the plight of nonreligious and atheist peoples being persecuted in various countries. Some of this focus has come from cases brought to the attention of atheist/humanist organisations such as Atheist Alliance International (AAI), the International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU) and local groups. Cases are being reported by the non-religious themselves, from within countries where their views are not acceptable, potentially ending in imprisonment or death. For example, cases have been reported within Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Morocco and Indonesia. There have been general concerns over the status of non-religious and atheist refugees due to the wording of the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees. The UN has recently (2016) confirmed the inclusion of non-religious and atheist refugees under the 'religion' criteria, and some countries, such as the UK, Australia and Canada, have accepted refugees based on persecution due to atheism. However, atheism as a criteria is not clearly accepted by all countries of asylum. This article will look at atheist asylum cases, the need for asylum and the structural difficulties faced by atheist/non-religious asylum seekers.

Author: Alan Gilbert Nixon

View Original Web Page

References :

Abunuwara, Kim, Ryan T. Cragun and J.E. Sumerau. 2018. Complicating Marginalisation: The Case of Mormon and Nonreligious College Students in a Predominantly Mormon Context. Journal of Beliefs & Values 39(3): 317–29. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2018.1441252.

Atheology.ca. 2016. Letter from AAI to United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Online: https://www.atheology.ca/pdf/aai/reply_unhrc_2016_10_07.pdf (accessed April 7, 2018).

Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2017. 2016 Census Data Reveals ‘No Religion’ Is Rising Fast. Online: http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/mediareleasesbyReleaseDate/7E65A144540551D7CA258148000E2B85?OpenDocument (accessed April 2, 2018).

Bagg, Samuel, and David Voas. 2010. The Triumph of Indifference: Irreligion in British Society. In Atheism and Secularity. Volume 2, Global Expressions, edited by Phil Zuckerman, 91–112. Praeger, Santa Barbara.

BBC. 2014. Atheist Afghan Granted Religious Asylum. Online: www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-25715736 (accessed April 2, 2018).

Berlit, Uwe, Harald Doerig and Hugo Storey. 2015. Credibility Assessment in Claims based on Persecution for Reasons of Religious Conversion and Homosexuality: A Practitioners Approach. International Journal of Refugee Law 27(4): 649-66. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/ijrl/eev053.

Bullivant, Stephen. 2018. Europe’s Young Adults and Religion Findings from the European Social Survey (2014–16) to Inform the 2018 Synod of Bishops. Online: https://www.stmarys.ac.uk/research/centres/benedict-xvi/docs/2018-mar-europe-young-people-report-eng.pdf (accessed April 2, 2018).

Bullivant, Stephen, and Lois Lee. 2016. Oxford Dictionary of Atheism. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/acref/9780191816819.001.0001.

Church of the New Faith v. Commissioner of Pay-Roll. 1983. HCA 40; (1983) 154 CLR 120. Australia.

Churgin, Michael J. 2016. Is Religion Different? Is There a Thumb on the Scale in Refugee Convention Appellate Court Adjudication in the United States? Some Preliminary Thoughts. Texas International Law Journal 51(2/3): 213-28.

Cimino, Richard, and Christopher Smith. 2014. Atheist Awakening: Secular Activism and Community in America. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199986323.001.0001.

Colaiacovo, Innessa. 2013. Not Just the Facts: Adjudicator Bias and Decisions of the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada (2006–2011). Journal of Migration and Human Security 1(4): 122-47.

Cotter, Christopher R. 2011. Toward a Typology of ‘Nonreligion’: A Qualitative Analysis of Every­day Narratives of Scottish University Students. Master of Science by Research in Religious Studies, University of Edinburgh.

Council of Ex-Muslims of Britain. 2017. Details on the Cases of Ayaz Nizami and Rana Noman. Online: https://www.ex-muslim.org.uk/2017/03/details-on-the-cases-of-ayaz-nizami-and-rana-noman/ (accessed November 22, 2018).

CJEU (Court of Justice of the European Union). 2012. PRESS RELEASE No 108/12 Luxembourg, 5 September Judgment in Joined Cases C-71/11 and C-99/11 Bundesrepublik Deutschland v Y and Z.

Craddock, Murray Neumann. 2013. Afghan Hazara from Jaghori Converts to Atheism; Granted Refugee Status. Online: http://www.immigrationlaw.com.au/document-401/afghan-hazara-from-jaghori-converts-to-atheism-granted-refugee-status (accessed April 2, 2018).

Cragun, Ryan T. 2015. Who Are the New Atheists? In Atheist Identities: Spaces and Social Con­texts, edited by Lori Beaman and Steven Tomlins, 195-211. Springer, New York. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09602-5_12. 2016. Nonreligion and Atheism. In Handbook of Religion and Society, edited by David Yamane, 301-20. Springer, New York.

Cragun, Ryan T., Barry Kosmin, Ariela Keysar, Joseph H. Hammer and Michael Nielsen. 2012. On the Receiving End: Discrimination Towards the Non-Religious in the United States. Journal of Contemporary Religion 27(1): 105-27. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/13537903.2012.642741.

Davis, Comfort, Ayodele Jegede, Robert Leurs, Adegbenga Sunmola and Ukoha Ukiwo. 2011. Comparing Religious and Secular NGOs in Nigeria: Are Faith-Based Organizations Distinctive? Working Paper 56, Religions and Develop­ment Research Programme, 1-184. University of Birmingham: Birmingham.

Dein, Simon. 2016. Attitudes Towards Spirituality and Other Worldly Experiences: An Online Survey of British Humanists. Secularism and Nonreligion 5(1): 1-8.

Demerath, Nicholas J., III. 2001. Crossing the Gods: World Religions and Worldly Politics. Rutgers University Press, New York.

Democracy Live Scot. 2016. Abuse, Fear & Manipulation: Saudi Arabia’s Hold Inside the UK. YouTube. Online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DtMwV3DCkz0 (accessed November 22, 2018).

Edgell, Penny, Douglas Hartmann, Evan Stewart and Joseph Gerteis. 2016. Atheists and Other Cultural Outsiders: Moral Boundaries and the Non-Religious in the United States. Social Forces 95(2): 607-38. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sow063.

Ferrari, Silvio (ed.). 2015. Routledge Handbook of Law and Religion. Routledge, London. Doi: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203694268.

Ferris, E. 2005. Faith Based and Secular Humanitarian Organisations. International Review of the Red Cross 87(858): 311-25. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1816383100181366.

Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, Elena, and Alastair Ager. 2013. Local Faith Communities and the Promotion of Resilience in Humani­tarian Situations. RSC/JLI Working Paper 90. Refugee Studies Centre. University of Oxford, Oxford.

Gervais, Will M., Azim F. Shariff and Ara Norenzayan. 2011. Do You Believe in Atheists? Distrust Is Central to Anti-Atheist Preju­dice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 101(6): 1189–206. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025882.

Gervais, Will M., and Ara Norenzayan. 2012. Reminders of Secular Authority Reduce Believers' Distrust of Atheists. Psychological Science 23(5): 1-9. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611429711.

Gervais, Will M., Dimitris Xygalatas, Ryan T. McKay, Michiel van Elk, Emma E. Buchtel, Mark Aveyard, Sarah R. Schiavone, Ilan Dar-Nimrod, Annika M. Svedholm-Häkkinen, Tapani Riekki, Eva Kundtová Klocová, Jona­than E. Ramsay and Joseph Bulbulia. 2017. Global Evidence of Extreme Intuitive Moral Prejudice against Atheists. Nature Human Behaviour 1(0151).

Giddings, Leah, and Thomas J. Dunn. 2015. The Robustness of Anti-Atheist Prejudice as Measured by Way of Cog­ni­tive Error. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 26(2): 124-35. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/10508619.2015.1006487.

Goodall, Christine. 2015. Shouting Towards the Sky: The Role of Religious Individuals, Commu­nities, Organisations and Institutions in Support of Refugees and Asylum Seekers. Policy Development and Evaluation Service, UNHCR.

The Guardian. 2018. You Don’t Need to Know Plato and Aristotle to Be a Humanist. Online: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/26/you-dont-need-to-know-plato-and-aristotle-to-be-a-humanist (accessed November 22, 2018).

Hammer, J.H., Ryan T. Cragun, Karen Hwang and Jesse M. Smith. 2012. Forms, Frequency, and Correlates of Perceived Anti-Atheist Discrimination. Secularism and Nonreligion 1: 43–67. Doi: https://doi.org/10.5334/snr.ad.

The Herald. 2016. MP Steps in to Help Family Fleeing Saudi Persecution. Online:‏ https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/homenews/14463117.MP_steps_in_to_help_family_eeing_Saudi_persecution___/ (accessed November 22, 2018).

Hodgart, Kenny. 2017. #HangAyazNizami Is What Comes of Caving in to Clerical Rule. Online: http://www.atimes.com/article/hangayaznizami-comes-caving-clerical-rule/ (accessed November 22, 2018).

Honig, Bonnie. 2009. Emergency Politics: Paradox, Law, Democracy. Princeton University Press, Princeton. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400830961.

Humanists UK. 2018. Home Ofce Tells Humanist He’ll Be Deported for Not Identifying Plato or Aristotle. Online: https://humanism.org.uk/2018/01/17/home-ofce-tells-humanist-hell-be-deported-for-not-identifying-plato-or-aristotle/ (accessed November 22, 2018).

Human Rights Committee. 1993. General Comment No. 22: The Right to Freedom of Thought, Conscience and Religion (Art. 18). 48th sess, UN Doc CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.4 (27 September 1993), [1].

Human Rights Watch. 2015. World Report 2015: Malaysia Events of 2014. Online: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2015/country-chapters/malaysia (accessed April 2, 2018).

Hurd, Elizabeth S. 2015. Beyond Religious Freedom: The New Global Politics of Religion. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.

Hyman, Gavin. 2007. Atheism in Modern History. In The Cambridge Companion to Atheism, edited by Michael Martin, 27-46. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

IHEU (International Humanist and Ethical Union). 2014. UK Atheist Asylum Case Should ‘Point the Way for the World’. Online: https://iheu.org/uk-atheist-asylum-case-should-point-the-way-for-the-world/ (accessed November 22, 2018).

IHEU (International Humanist and Ethical Union). 2017a. The Freedom of Thought Report 2017. Online: http://freethoughtreport.com/download-the-report/ (accessed April 2, 2018).

IHEU (International Humanist and Ethical Union). 2017b. ‘Bangladesh’. The Freedom of Thought Report. Online: http://freethoughtreport.com/countries/asia-southern-asia/bangladesh/ (accessed April 2, 2018).

IHEU (International Humanist and Ethical Union). 2017c. ‘Egypt’. The Freedom of Thought Report. Online: http://freethoughtreport.com/countries/africa-northern-africa/egypt/ (accessed April 2, 2018).

IHEU (International Humanist and Ethical Union). 2017d. ‘Indonesia’. The Freedom of Thought Report. Online: http://freethoughtreport.com/countries/asia-south-eastern-asia/indonesia/ (accessed April 2, 2018).

IHEU (International Humanist and Ethical Union). 2017e. ‘Pakistan’. The Freedom of Thought Report. Online: http://freethoughtreport.com/countries/asia-southern-asia/pakistan/ (accessed April 2, 2018).

IHEU (International Humanist and Ethical Union). 2017f. ‘Saudi Arabia’. The Freedom of Thought Report. Online: http://freethoughtreport.com/countries/asia-western-asia/saudi-arabia/ (accessed April 2, 2018).

IHEU (International Humanist and Ethical Union). 2017g. ‘Turkey’. The Freedom of Thought Report. Online: http://freethoughtreport.com/countries/asia-western-asia/turkey/ (accessed April 2, 2018).

IHEU (International Humanist and Ethical Union). 2017h. ‘United States of America’. The Freedom of Thought Report. Online: http://freethoughtreport.com/countries/americas-northern-america/united-states-of-america/ (accessed April 2, 2018).

IHEU (International Humanist and Ethical Union). 2017i. Atheism ‘Very Dangerous’ and ‘Unconstitutional’ Says Government Minister in Malaysia, again, Wrongly. Online: https://iheu.org/atheism-dangerous-unconstitutional-says-government-minister-malaysia-wrongly/ (accessed November 22, 2018).

IHEU (International Humanist and Ethical Union). 2017j ‘Afghanistan’. The Freedom of Thought Report. Online: https://freethoughtreport.com/countries/asia-southern-asia/afghanistan/ (accessed April 2, 2018).

IHEU (International Humanist and Ethical Union). 2017k ‘Malaysia’. The Freedom of Thought Report. Online: https://freethoughtreport.com/countries/asia-south-eastern-asia/malaysia/ (accessed November 22, 2018).

IHEU (International Humanist and Ethical Union). 2018a. The Freedom of Thought Report 2018: Key Countries Edition. Online: https://freethoughtreport.com/download-the-report/ (accessed November 20, 2018).

IHEU (International Humanist and Ethical Union). 2018b. The Freedom of Thought Report 2018: Open Data. Online: https://freethoughtreport.com/data/ (accessed November 20, 2018).

The Jakarta Post. 2014. Atheist Alexander Aan Gets of [sic] Prison. Online: http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/01/31/atheist-alexander-aan-gets-prison.html (accessed 22 November, 2018).

Jamal, Arif A. 2015. The Impact of Denitional Issues on the Right to Freedom of Religion and Belief. In Routledge Handbook of Law and Religion, edited by Silvio Ferrari, 93-99. Routledge, London.

Kalin, Walter. 1986. Troubled Communication: Cross-Cultural Misunderstandings in the Asylum Hearing. International Migration Review 20: 230-34.

Kettell, Steven. 2012. Thematic Review: Religion and the Big Society: A Match Made in Heaven? Policy & Politics 40(2): 281-96. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1332/030557312X640004.

Keysar, Ariela, and Juhem Navarro-Rivera. 2017. A World of Atheism: Global Demographics. In The Oxford Handbook of Atheism, edited by Stephen Bullivant and Michael Ruse. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Kosmin, Barry A. 2007. Contemporary Secularity and Secularism. In Secularism and Secularity: Contemporary International Perspectives, edited by Barry A. Kosmin and Ariela Keysar, 1-13. Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society, Hartford, CT.

LeDrew, Stephen. 2016. The Evolution of Atheism: The Politics of a Modern Movement. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190225179.001.0001.

Lee, Lois. 2012. Research Note: Talking about a Revolution: Terminology for the New Field of Non-religion Studies. Journal of Contemporary Religion 27(1): 129-39.

Lee, Lois. 2015. Recognising the Non-religious: Reimagining the Secular. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Lena, M. 2017. Update: Malaysian Persecution of Atheists. Online: http://www.atheistrepublic.com/blog/lena-m/update-malaysian-persecution-atheists (accessed November 22, 2018).

LoRusso, James Dennis. 2017. Everyone Has a Faith. In Stereotyping Religion, edited by Brad Stoddard and Craig Martin, 131-45. Bloomsbury Academic, London.

Lüchau, Peter. 2010. Atheism and Secularity: The Scandinavian Paradox. In Atheism and Secularity. Volume 2, Global Expressions, edited by Phil Zuckerman, 177-96. Praeger, Santa Barbara, CA.

Maastricht Guidelines on Violations of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. 1997. E/C.12/2000/13 at para. 15 (f) and Parts IV and V.

Makar, Johannes A. 2014. In Egypt, Religion Remains a Vital Political Tool. Online: http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/in-egypt-religion-remains-a-vital-political-tool (accessed November 22, 2018).

Makdisi, Ussama. 2000. The Culture of Sectarianism: Community, History, and Violence in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Lebanon. University of California Press, Berkeley.

Mann, Marcus. 2015. Triangle Atheists: Stigma, Identity, and Community among Atheists in North Carolina’s Triangle Region. Secularism and Nonreligion 4(1): 1-12.

McDonald-Norman, Douglas. 2014. Simply Impossible: Plausibility Assessment in Refugee Status Determi­nation. Alternative Law Journal 39(4): 451-55.

McKernan, Bethan. 2017. Man ‘Sentenced to Death for Atheism’ in Saudi Arabia. Online: https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/saudi-arabia-man-sentenced-death-atheism-ahmad-al-shamri-hafar-al-batin-appeal-denied-a7703161.html (accessed November 22, 2018).

Mehta, Hemant. 2017. With #HangAyazNizami, It’s Clear the Anti-Atheist Sentiment in South Asia Is Getting Worse. Online: https://friendlyatheist.patheos.com/2017/03/26/with-hangayaznizami-its-clear-the-anti-atheist-sentiment-in-south-asia-is-getting-worse/ (accessed November 22, 2018).

Nappali Peter Williams v. Institute of Technical Education. 1999. 2 SLR 529. Singapore.

National Secular Society. 2017. Pakistani Twitter Users Call for Hanging of ‘Blasphemer’. Online: https://www.secularism.org.uk/news/2017/03/pakistani-twitter-users-call-for-hanging-of-blasphemer (accessed November 22, 2018).

Nawyn, Stephanie J. 2006. Faith, Ethnicity, and Culture in Refugee Resettlement. American Beha­vioral Scientist 49(11): 1509-27. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764206288462.

Nichols, J. Bruce. 1988. The Uneasy Alliance: Religion, Refugee Work, and U.S. Foreign Policy. Oxford University Press, New York.

Nixon, Alan G. 2012. Contemporary Atheism as Hyper-real Irreligion: The Enchantment of Science and Atheism in this Cosmos. In The Handbook of Hyper-Real Religions, edited by Adam Possamai, 375-97. Brill, Leiden.

Nixon, Alan G. 2014. New Atheism as a Case of Competitive Postsecular Worldviews. PhD dissertation, Western Sydney University.

Nixon, Alan G. 2016. Australia: Conict, Not Competition. In The Atheist Bus Campaign: Global Manifestations and Responses, edited by Steven Tomlins and Spencer Bullivant, 24-50. Brill, Leiden.

NOLO.com. 2018. Can Atheists Get Asylum based on Persecution on Religious Grounds? Online: https://www.nolo.com/legal-encyclopedia/can-atheists-get-asylum-based-persecution-religious-grounds.html (accessed November 22, 2018).

Ong, Aihwa. 2003. Buddha Is hiding: Refugees, Citizenship, the New America. University of California Press, Berkeley.

Pasquale, Frank, Luke Galen and Phil Zuckerman. 2016. The Nonreligious: Understanding Secular People and Societies. Oxford University Press, New York.

Pew Research Center. 2012. Pew Forum on Religion; Public Life. ‘The Global Religious Land­scape’. Online: http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/ (accessed November 22, 2018).

Pew Research Center. 2016a. The Factors Driving the Growth of Religious ‘Nones’ in the U.S. Online: http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/09/14/the-factors-driving-the-growth-of-religious-nones-in-the-u-s/ (accessed April 2, 2018).

Pew Research Center. 2016b. Why America’s ‘Nones’ Left Religion Behind. Online: http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/08/24/why-americas-nones-left-religion-behind/ (accessed April 2, 2018).

Pew Research Center. 2016c. Which Countries Still Outlaw Apostasy and Blasphemy? Online: http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/07/29/which-countries-still-outlaw-apostasy-and-blasphemy/ (accessed November 22, 2018).

R (on the application of Hodkin and another) v. Registrar of Births, Deaths and Marriages. 2013. UKSC 77. UK.

raifbadawi.org. 2017. About Raif Badawi. Online: https://www.raifbadawi.org/about-raif-badawi/all-about-raif-badawi.html (accessed November 22, 2018).

Re South Place Ethical Society. 1980. 1 WLR 1565, [1980] 3 All ER 981. England.

Robertson, Lloyd H. 2017. Secular Weddings in Canada: An Examination of a Humanist Response to the Evolution of Marriage. Secularism and Nonreligion 6: 9. Doi: https://doi.org/10.5334/snr.76.

Rosen, Ina. 2009. I’m a Believer—But I’ll Be Damned if I’m Religious: Belief and Religion in the Greater Copenhagen Area: A Focus Group Study. Lund Studies in Sociology of Religion 8. University of Lund, Lund.

Sanderson, Sertan. 2018. A Question of Faith: Atheism as Grounds for Asylum. Online: http://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/9024/a-question-of-faith-atheism-as-grounds-for-asylum (accessed November 22, 2018).

Sherwood, Harriet. 2018a. Philosophers Urge Rethink of Pakistani Humanist's Asylum. Online: https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/jan/26/philosophers-urge-rethink-of-pakistani-humanist-hamza-bin-walayat-asylum (accessed November 22, 2018).

Sherwood, Harriet. 2018b. Pakistani Humanist Denied UK Asylum after Failing to Identify Plato. Online: https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/jan/17/pakistani-humanist-denied-uk-asylum-after-failing-to-identify-plato (accessed November 22, 2018).

Slotte, Pamela. 2010. The Religious and the Secular in European Human Rights Discourse. Finish Yearbook of International Law 21 (2010): 54.

Speed, David, Thomas J. Coleman III, and Joseph Langston. 2018. What Does It All Mean? Atheism, Non-Religion and Life Meaning. Sage Open. January–March: 1-13.

Stamatopoulou, Elsa. 2014. Cultural Rights in International Law: Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Beyond. Brill, Leiden.

Stoddard, Brad, and Craig Martin (eds.). 2017. Stereotyping Religion: Critiquing Clichés. London: Bloomsbury Aca­demic.

Stringer, Martin. . 2013. Discourses on Religious Diversity: Explorations in Urban Ecology. Ashgate, Farnham.

Sullivan, Winnifred Fallers. 2018. [2005] The Impossibility of Religious Freedom. New edn. Princeton University Press, Princeton. Doi: https://doi.org/10.23943/9781400890330.

Swan, Lawton K., and Martin Heesacker. 2012. Anti-Atheist Bias in the United States: Testing Two Critical Assump­tions. Secularism and Nonreligion 1: 32-42. Doi: https://doi.org/10.5334/snr.ac.

Syndicat Northcrest v. Amselem. 2004. 2 S.C.R. 551, 2004 SCC 47. Canada.

Taylor, Jillian. 2016. Gay, Atheist Student from Malaysia Has Refugee Claim Accepted. Online: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/winnipeg-hazim-ismail-refugee-hearing-malaysia-1.3521172 (accessed April 10, 2018).

Toft, Monica Duffy. 2016. Is Religious Freedom a Western Imposition? Current History 115 (777): 32-35.

Trzebiatowska, Marta. 2018. Sovereign of Herself: Women’s Narratives of ‘Lived Atheism’. Secu­larism and Nonreligion 7(1): 2. Doi: https://doi.org/10.5334/snr.88.

Turner, Bryan S., Jack Barbalet and Adam Possamai (eds.). 2011. Religion and the State: A Comparative Sociology. Anthem Press, London.

USCIRF. 2018. Annual Report 2018—Tier 2—Malaysia. United States Commission on International Religious Freedom.

UNHCR. 1992. Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status under the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. HCR/IP/4/Eng/REV.1. UNHCR. Online: http://www.unhcr.org/4d93528a9.pdf (accessed April 2, 2018).

Wibawa, Tasha. 2018. Indonesian Buddhist Woman Imprisoned after Complaining Mosque Is too Loud. Online: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-08-22/buddhist-woman-charged-under-indonesia-blasphemy-laws/10151702 (accessed November 22, 2018).

Wikipedia. 2018.